Ontology of Computing Process and Epistemology

Question: Discuss about the Ontology of Computing Process and Epistemology. Answer: Introduction This project report is working with the theory of Positive Accounting Theory. This is also known as PAT; basically these are the theories which define the accountants behaviour. The name Positive Accounting Theory is given by the Zimmerman and Watts. In this theory, behaviour of human being towards the settings of accounts has explained. This theory is used to define and assume the facts of general accepted accounting principles (Baker, 2011). This positive accounting theory is supposed to be a common theory which defines the accountant behaviour in an extended form. Positive accounting theory is somewhere related with the EMH (Efficient Market Hypothesis) which is considered as root of the positive accounting theory. Positive accounting theory is considered as the very useful and which is utilised on regular basis by the people who are worried by the accounting policy effects and the organization status. But it is defined below that this theory also have various limitations and only by using positive accounting theory, company cannot accomplish its business objective as it does not seem to be as productive as it seems. The main objective of assessing PAT is to recognize and talk over the issues and related theories in the given articles by the author Paul V Dunmore in the book Half a Defence of Positive Accounting Research. In this paper, information like strength and weaknesses will be discussed with the structure of summary, questionnaire, articles structure along with limitation, theoretical outline and at last it is being finished with the conclusion. The base of this project report is accounting and in this article accounting positive approaches are being focused. In this report, overall analysis of accounting theories will be done including the questionnaire on the scientific theories status. There are many faults which have been figured out in this theory that doubts on the significance of this theory. According to this theory, it is assumed that managers of the organization are more prominent part as compared with the companys shareholders and only managers can take important decisions regarding the profitable activities of the organization. In this theory, the normal behaviour of human being is being discussed including accountings epistemology and ontology (Cooper and Humphry, 2012). This theory seems like powerful but after implications it has various limitations. In this paper, illustrations has also included through the better articles in order to understand the concept in proper manner. It is assumed that this theory at present is not able to achieve the scientific purposes (Martin, 2010). Evaluation has been done on the basis of accounting theories through which their effectiveness can be identified. Various processing has completed in this project report like model testing regarding its construction. In this paper, the usage of hypothesis testing has been evaluated which is done by the scholars into the process of decision making. It is suggested through the theoretical discussion on this articles defines that positive research is being performed in the accounting and on which basis scientists concluded that this research is not able to accomplish the specified scientific aim (Beise and Sherr, 2015). Research Questionnaire Does this research and theories are based on accounting are sufficient in order to deliver constant base for the decision maker? In research activities and in organizational functions, there are various situations arise in which decision makers have to make correct decision in order to accomplish the ongoing operation. So, with the help of existing framework and research of accounting, issues and problems of accounting models users can be solved (Lambert, 2010). Do researchers can do the sufficient research regarding positive accounting concepts? In the method of positive accounting research, only quantitative model is used. There are some quantitative models and by using these models researchers can make better decision. Whether there are trustworthy techniques for measurement which can be applied to test accounting research frameworks theoretical models? An additional question arises here and also important to be answered- Are the techniques trustworthy or adequate enough in order to do proper testing of theoretical models. For that reason an important question arise here is related to the acceptability of measurement techniques so that testing in accounting research framework for theoretical models can be done properly. Theoretical Framework Theoretical framework can be defined as a structure which supports or embraces theory of research study. A theory is introduced or described with the help of theoretical framework which enlightens why the research problem exist in the study. Through theoretical framework a basis can be framed with help off some theories to prove something or to elucidate any problem in research whether accounting research or any other research (Bouaziz, Ambroise and Guedj, 2011). In this article, different theoretical frameworks which are used to support the research are as follows: Human agency theory- In this article, human agency theory is being studied and established. Responsibilities, roles and practices follows by human to build societies are defined and identified with the help of human agency theory. A society is established by humans only, as if there are no human interactions then there is no existence of society. In the article, theories are analysed in order to identify whether they provide an adequate base to test the present system of accounting (Danks, 2015). To understand the inadequacy of theories or established theories exploration of problems which were accompanied with Pioneer 10 and Pioneer 11 were described. At present, numerous theories are there, which provides irrelevant logics and not helps in analysing the research problem or to make base for effective decision making. Theories which are related to testing measurement, has been considered in this article. In order to get better results assertions are used in the auditing as they deliv er facts. With the use of assertions a factual statement can be made which provides a base in process of auditing. In order to make the factual statement, expertise used their personal experience and so this condition concedes to use auditing theory or assertions in the field of scientific research (Campo and Lichtman, 2008). Hypothesis testing- A different theoretical framework which is important for positive accounting research is hypothesis testing. Through hypothesis testing, researches can give valid reasons to prove their points or research as this test generates effective result (Clement et al., 2014). Probability data is used in the hypothesis testing in order to test the figures as well as to analyse the situation in restricted time frame. In hypothetical test, more consideration is given to the quantitative date instead of qualitative data. Vague figures can mislead the results for that reason relying on quantitative data is not enough to get better result or solution for the research problem. So it is not wrong to say that it is main issue of applying hypothetical test for the research (Devlieger, Mayer and Rosseel, 2016). Significance and limitations of the article Using literature to examine the theorys limitations and methodology which is used: In order to conclude the usability and reliability of the accounting research, positive theories of accounting has been evaluated and discussed in this article. Accounting is considered as the main branch in academic research which is utilised to implement and preparing the accounting facts. Theories of accounting are limited regarding evaluating and explaining the theoretical prospect of accounting theories and its framework (Primiero, 2014). It is explained earlier, that the accounting positive theory explains the limitations and actions of the accounting research. Positive accounting theory has a good capability to predict and assume the events of the real world and explains them to the transactions of accounting. In comparison with the other theories, it is capable to predict and define and other are not able to mention what needs to be performed (Ennis and Ennis, 2010). This theory is assumed to be a good theory but it has many critics also. Positive accounting theory does not include accounting research quantitative prospective which are related to various perceptions. Positive accounting theories are based on several concepts that need to be explained and understood which are linked with the accounting practices and research which are accepted by the whole world. Concepts applicability is not examined by the positive accounting theory but in this theory examine of accounting perceptions happen. Methodology is used to specify the system that is used to define which method is used in this project. In this positive accounting theory, empirical research design is used. There are various limitations of accounting theories which are defined in the book Half a Defence Of Positive Accounting Research. Positive accounting theory is not having any base for further improvement in the practises of accounting but it is only having the explanation and examination of the used perceptions. Companies in present scenario work toward to ensure that they should apply accounting theories which should provide effective set of support to it. The theory which fails to fulfil the requirements of the company cannot be used, so, it does not seem to be productive. Positive accounting theorys assumptions are indefinite and it does not follow the GAAP (generally accepted accounting principles). It explains all the work which is to be done and all are only interrelated with the self - interest. For the accounting theories which are being applied by the company it is required that all set of generally accepted accounting principles should be included with the help of which an assurance could be made that the theory which is being applied by the organisation is up to the market and will help in the sustainability process of the same with the help of which organisation will be able to move on the path of success (Ge and Lennox, 2009). Further area of improvement of this theory is not possible and it is scientifically approved theory. This theorys applicability has raised many questions. For the companies applying the theories it is being assured that the theory which is being applied should be flexible, theories of rigid nature could not provide proper set of support to the organisation and affects the future progress (Fraser, 2014). Flexible theories ensure that the company could manage to change all the aspects according to the requirements of the market as well as scenarios with the help of which company could manage the situation and ensure to move on the path of success as well as sustainability. Positive accounting theory is not based on the any generally perceptions but on separately accounting perspective. Moreover, there are many variety of accounting concepts but this theory is based on the separately accounting concept. Author in this article has made satisfactory efforts in order to overwhelm from the confines of positive accounting theory. To analyse the positive accounting theory hypothesis test is also done; questions put up by hypothesis in this article supports logics as well as practice of positive accounting theory. Methodologies take account of test of several models and aspects on the basis of reasoning as well as elements of practice undertaken. Conclusions After analysing the article, it has been concluded that the accounting practices which are adopted in the activities of research are not as appropriate as it could be. The quantitative measure used in the research for positive accounting reveals downwards trend. It is also concluded that better decisions cannot be made through analytical models as they lays emphasis on trends which are not developed adequately (Kothari and Skinner, 2010). Measurement techniques should be used in proper way in order to test the theoretical models in effective way. Emphasis shall be laid on improvement of theories or concept`s measurement instead of concentrating on testing of theories or concepts. Another conclusion made through analysis is that hypothesis testing is inadequate to analyse the results as they provide ambiguous ideas for the researchers to make decisions. In order to overcome from the drawbacks which are possessed by these concepts or theory, replication is vital in positive accounting research. Consequences drawn from this article are interconnected with development, design, application as well as structuring of theories and framework for accounting in the field of knowledge. Certain theories are statistically sound which are used for statistical measures but practical applications of these theories are merely assumed. To make better decisions positive accounting theory can play a vital role but it is important to apply the measurement techniques in proper way so that deficient functions can be tackled. References Baker, C. 2011. A genealogical history of positivist and critical accounting research. Accounting History, vol. 16, no 2, pp 207-221. Beise, B., Sherr, M. 2015. Making Human Behavior Theory Real through the Unreal: Fiction in the HBSE Classroom. Journal of Human Behavior in the Social Environment, pp 1-10. 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